さんだーさんだ！（ブログ版）

2015年度より中高英語教員になりました。2020年度開校の幼小中混在校で働いています。

Learning From Your Mistakes

英語 英語学習 podcast 文字起こし

hiddenbrain.org
↑こちらのポッドキャストを、先日書いた↓こちらの文字起こしアプリで起こしてみた。
thunder0512.hatenablog.com

※今日は、つい先日使えるようになったGPT-4 APIを使っています。前回までよりは、だいぶ読みやすいかな…??

長いので、主な注意点を最初に🙏

  • [mm:ss]というタイムスタンプは、入っているところと入っていないところがあります。ChatGPTの限界です。
    • これはGPT-4で改善されてそう！
  • 「-Japan（日本）」「-Barak Obama（バラク・オバマ）」というのも、単語帳作成のためのプロンプト中に例として挙げたものです。これまたChatGPTの限界です。
    • こちらもだいぶ改善されてそう。
  • その他にも日本語訳が抜けているなど不完全な部分は多々あるかと思いますが、基本的にはChatGPTの限界だと思ってご了承ください。。
    • スクリプト文が入り込んでしまっているところは引き続きときどきありますね。
  • 誤訳や不完全な文字起こしがあったとしても、なんの責任も負えませんので、ご自身で確かめながらご利用ください。

This is Hidden Brain, I'm Shankar Vedantam.
In the 1940s, a teenager named Russell Solomon sold used records out of his father's drug store
in Sacramento, California. He had dreams of turning this enterprise into a full-fledged
business, so in the 1960s, he opened a small record store in the suburbs of Sacramento.
He named it Tower Records.

The business took off. Russell Solomon opened storefronts in Los Angeles, in New York City, and even Japan.
By the 70s, Tower Records had become a musical mecca, with stores frequented by the most
famous artists in the world. Soon, Tower grew into an international billion-dollar empire.

In the late 1990s, Tower took on $110 million in debt
to expand the business even further.
Around the same time, music fans were turning to the internet

[1:02]
to get their tunes.
Digital file-sharing sites, like Napster, exploded in popularity.
"You don't need to own music to have music.
To love it, 1.5 million songs."
Tower's sales began to decline. More disruptors showed up.
However, Russell Solomon refused to see the threat for what it was – an existential risk – to
the business he had built.
"As for the whole concept of beaming something into one's home, that may come along someday, that's for sure.
But it will come along over a long period of time, and we'll be able to deal with
it and change our focus and the way we do business.
As far as your CD collection, or our CD inventory for that matter, it's going to be around
for a long, long time; believe me."
Tower Records filed for bankruptcy in 2004.
It's easy to hear the story and think,
"How could someone so successful ignore such a serious threat?"

[2:02]
Why is it when faced with possible failure,
so many entrepreneurs, leaders, and managers
bury their heads in the sand?
The one thing we don't ask is, "How often do we make that same mistake too?"
Today we begin a two-part mini-series that examines one of the most serious limitations
we face as human beings.
Whether we are 7 or 70, many of us have trouble learning from failure and setbacks.
And when the shoe is on the other foot, when we are in a position to help a colleague or
friend identify some glaring shortcoming, many of us hesitate to speak plainly, worried
that we will come across as rude.
What happens in the brain when we receive negative feedback?
And are there psychological techniques to help us seize the tools of learning and success?
We will reveal that this week, on Hidden Brain.

[3:08]
Think about the last time you tried to do something difficult.
Maybe you tried to write a novel, or pay off a debt,
or apply to college.
Chances are there were ups and downs along the way.
Maybe you accomplished your goal, or maybe it was just out of reach.
As a small child, Loren Eskreis Winkler had her own ambitions.
She dreamed of becoming a classical pianist.
Her mother, who was trained at Juilliard, served as her teacher.
Loren Eskreis Winkler, welcome to Hidden Brain.
"Thank you so much for having me."
Lauren, there was a time when you were five or six
when your mother would give you feedback
on how you were doing on the piano.
How did you react to her feedback?
"I would get pretty upset.
I think often the lessons would end early
because I'd have trouble digesting the feedback
and really sitting with it and doing things again.
So when it was positive feedback, it was great.
And when it was negative feedback,

[4:09]
I still remember to this day,
the difficulty involved in swallowing that
and accepting that I wasn't perfect,
that my mother saw that there was something
that needed to be corrected."
As you got older, Lauren,
you found yourself especially enjoying
your piano practices on Tuesdays.
What was special about Tuesdays?
"Oh gosh, I loved Tuesdays.
The magical thing about Tuesday
is that that was the day when our cleaning lady came.
And cleaning ladies are wonderful,
and they're also so noisy, right?
There were vacuums, and mops,
and so I remember it was so wonderful.
I'd be playing in the living room,
and she'd be vacuuming the red carpet.
So I'd see my hands playing the notes,
and I would hear in my head how I wanted the piece to sound,
and all I could hear was the vacuum.

[5:10]
So that was kind of like the ideal, right? You're playing and you don't have
to, so to speak, face the music. You don't have to actually listen to all the
problems; it just sounded exactly the way I wanted it to in my head."
I understand there was a time in your perhaps early adolescence when your mom
would tell you to take breaks from the piano, but you found it hard to take this
piece of feedback as well, even when you were on vacation?
"Yeah, so my family would take vacations
and, who knew, a piano could fit in the back seat
of a four-door sedan, but it can.
Wait, a piano can fit in a sedan?
"Yeah, so it was like a very advanced electric piano, it was a Yamaha.
So, at my begging, my parents would load it
into the back seat of the car
and we'd take it with us on vacation.
And so we'd drive and we'd take the piano.
So I had this down pat, right.
Every summer I was not going to lose three weeks of practicing,
and then one summer my parents almost got me,
they said, 'Well, Lauren, this summer we're going to Europe
so you can't bring your piano.'.

[6:11]
And so, not to be deterred,
I actually figured out the hotel we were staying at
and I contacted all the nursing homes
within a three-mile radius of the hotel
and scheduled these performances.
And by the way, people in Europe
actually appreciate classical music, it was kind of amazing."
And what came from your inability to listen
to your mother's counsel about taking breaks, Loren?
"Yeah, so eventually I developed tendinitis.
My mother was very psychologically wise as well.
She was a physician, so part of her advice really was
from a medical standpoint, saying 'You know,
you can't do this all the time,
you need to take breaks, you need to rest.'
That's the nature of your body physically,
it's the nature of the brain that you need breaks.
So it was too much of a good thing."
I understand that you began studying with your mom again as you grew older.
And again, she would tell you to practice playing in a way that felt uncomfortable to you.
What was her suggestion about the way you played your music, Lauren?

[7:12]
"So I, at the peak of my seriousness on the piano, I was probably practicing six to eight
hours a day. Oh my gosh. And one of the most effective things you can do is to start from random measures in the piece, right? Of course, you can start from the first measure of the first movement or the first measure of the second movement, but what happens if you get lost in the middle of the first movement? You need these ports, these ports of safety that you can return to. Should you lose your place, to be able to pick yourself up. And so, your mom told you to start in the middle in some ways, rather than starting at the start? Absolutely. And to practice over and over again. I didn't want to be interrupted and for her to say, 'start four measures hence,' or 'start four measures behind where you just started.' That didn't feel enjoyable. And yet being able to just throw yourself in and start from any measure, that's crucial when it comes to performance.

[8:12]
In high school, Lauren got an opportunity to audition at the Curtis Institute of Music, one of the most competitive music schools in the world. She had to perform in front of Eleanor Sokoloff, a famous pianist who had been teaching at Curtis since 1936. "So as you can imagine, I was pretty nervous, right? This was like the culmination of all of my dreams for someone who had been practicing all day, every day, even though I was only a teenager, I had already sacrificed so many things for this goal. And so I went in, and I started playing. And the worst thing that could have possibly happened happened, which is I lost my place. So I was in the middle of a Bach fugue and I had these four world-famous pianists looking right at me, and I fumbled.

[9:14]
And I didn't immediately recover. And after a few seconds, I can still hear the sound in my head, Eleanor Sokoloff took her pencil and started rapping it against the table and said, 'That'll be all.' And that was it." In some ways this was the very advice your mom was giving you, Lauren, which was, 'If you get lost, you need to be able to restart in the middle without going back all the way to the start of the piece.' "100 percent."
Lauren was heartbroken. Her dream of becoming a classical pianist did not come to pass, but her experience did give her a useful window into how we all listen to observations and advice. When we come back, Lauren becomes a researcher and explores the psychology of feedback, criticism, and failure. You're listening to Hidden Brain.

★ここまでの要約・日本語訳★

  • In the 1940s, a teenager named Russell Solomon began selling used records out of his father's drugstore and eventually founded Tower Records in the '60s. This business flourished into an international billion-dollar empire.

英語：1940年代の若者であるRussell Solomonは自分の父親の薬局で中古レコードを売り始め、1960年代にTower Recordsを創設しました。ビジネスは国際的な十億ドル帝国に発展しました。

  • By late 1990s, online music and digital file-sharing sites like Napster started to affect Tower Records’ sales. Even at the face of an existential risk, Russell Solomon remained firmly optimistic about the future of physical music.

英語：1990年代後半、ナップスターのようなオンライン音楽やデジタルファイル共有サイトがTower Recordsの売上に影響を与え始めました。 Russell Solomonは、物理的音楽の未来について強く楽観的であり続けました。

  • Tower Records was declared bankrupt in 2004. This incident is usually seen as an instance of a successful person failing to acknowledge a serious threat.

英語： Tower Recordsは2004年に破産宣告されました。この事件は、一般的に成功した人が深刻な脅威を認識することを失敗した例として見られています。

  • The interview features a classical pianist, Loren Eskreis Winkler, who shares her experiences with success, failure, and the importance of accepting feedback.

英語：インチビューでは、古典的なピアニストであるローレン・エスクライス・ウィンクラーが、成功、失敗、そしてフィードバックを受け入れることの重要性について彼女の経験を共有しています。

  • The show explores the psychology of feedback, criticism, and failure, aiming to provide techniques to deal with and learn from setbacks in professional or personal life.

英語：ショーは、フィードバック、批判、失敗の心理学を探求し、専門的または個人的な人生での挫折から学び、それを対処するためのテクニックを提供することを目指しています。

★ここまでの特徴的な固有名詞・英単語・英語表現★
【固有名詞】

【英単語】

  • teenager（ティーンエイジャー）
  • records（レコード）
  • enterprise（企業)
  • dreams（夢）
  • suburbs（郊外）
  • storefronts（店先）
  • frequented（頻繁に訪れる)
  • disruptors（破壊者）
  • threat（脅威）
  • existential（存在の）
  • debt（债务)
  • bankruptcy（破産）
  • counsel（助言）
  • setbacks（挫折）
  • negative feedback（否定的なフィードバック）
  • psychological techniques（心理的テクニック）
  • ambitions（野心）
  • adolescence（思春期）

【コロケーション】

  • take off（急上昇する）
  • refuse to see（見ないふりをする）
  • file for bankruptcy（破産を申告する）
  • early adolescence（初期の思春期）
  • make a mistake（間違いを犯す）
  • try something difficult（何か難しいことに挑戦する）
  • pay off a debt（债を返す）
  • become a classical pianist（クラシックピアニストになる）
  • lose the place（場所を見失う）
  • listen to observations and advice（観察とアドバイスを聴く）

[10:14]
I'm Shankar Vedantam.
This is Hidden Brain.
I'm Shankar Vedantam.
Growing up, Lauren Escrews Winkler wanted to be a professional classical pianist, but throughout her adolescence, Lauren ignored feedback from her music teachers time and time again. She eventually failed an audition at her dream music school. It's a painful story, but it's also a relatable one. It illustrates what many of us do when we are given feedback we don't like. We ignore it. We need feedback, not evasion.
Lauren, after you became a psychologist, you studied how people respond to feedback. How do signals of failure affect people's feelings?
"Failure makes everyone feel terrible. It kind of doesn't matter who you are,

[11:14]
how successful you are or how small the failure is. I'd say that's the general conclusion of dozens of experiments that have been run to date." Lauren, and her colleagues, once ran an experiment which required people to learn from their mistakes. It was called the Facing Failure Game.
"So this was a study run with customer service representatives where we gave them this facing failure game which is just a multiple choice test. So they're going through and we're asking them multiple choice questions that have only two answer choices. And so if you guess correct and you learn the right answer, well, now you know what the correct answer is because we told you. But, crucially, if you get it wrong and you're told your answer was incorrect, well, you got the exact same information as people in the success condition because there are only two answer choices. And if you are paying attention, you should now know what the correct answer is, regardless of your condition.

[12:15]
And so what we find over and over again, whether you are a customer service representative or just a participant in the United States or from many different walks of life, we find that people who are given the failure feedback, they learn significantly less than the people who receive the success feedback. The people who were told 'you're right,' were more likely to retain the answer to the question. Their minds were able to hold onto the information. The people who were told 'you're wrong,' were less likely to do so. People who receive the correct feedback, they're tuning in, they're paying attention and they're learning in a way that people in the failure condition are not. Our resistance to learning from failure is compounded by a second, broader problem – our fear of bad news. Researchers have found, for example, that investors stop checking their stock portfolios when the stock market drops.

[13:15]
We often go out of our way to put our heads in the sand and avoid bad news, even when this information may be useful to us. There's a whole body of research showing that it kind of doesn't matter how big the consequences are. So it could be literally your life savings are on the line and you're not checking the stock market when it goes down because you're too scared of getting negative information about yourself or your investments. I remember one other study that examined individuals who were given a test for a sexually transmitted disease and these people refused to come back and get their test results because they preferred not to know if they had the disease than to find out.

"Exactly! So again, we see it doesn't, matter if it's life and death, right? It could literally be a matter of life and death, but what people are more focused on are the long-term benefits of learning. It's almost like you can't overestimate people's desire to avoid pain and seek pleasure in the

[14:18]
moment. So we've been discussing two things here, but they are obviously related. We've been talking about failure and we've been talking about feedback, negative feedback and failure. Now we ignore both those things, but I want to understand the relationship between them because you argue that failure, in some ways, is a form of feedback.
Yes. So I think failure, broadly defined, is not achieving a desired goal. And in that sense, failure can take many different forms. Whether it's a broad goal like health. And the HIV test is going to tell you, 'no, you're not healthy.' Or whether it's about loss of money, or whether it's about simply not doing well in a multiple choice test. All of these ways are getting at that broad concept of failure; there's some signal in the environment telling you that you're not achieving your desired goal.

[15:23]
So what keeps us from paying attention to this feedback? It turns out this is a surprisingly complex question. In fact, one reason many of us are bad at learning from failure is that we don't understand that there are many barriers at play. Here's the first one. Lauren and her colleagues asked players how they felt before and after playing the Facing Failure game. They found that after guessing the wrong answers, people reported having lower self-esteem. They ignored failure for the same reason Lauren tuned out her own mistakes on the piano - failure bruises our ego.
"What we found over and over again is that the real reason people aren't learning and engaging is because failure is interpreted as a reflection of the self, right? And everyone has a really strong drive to see themselves as a competent, good, capable person. I understand that some researchers found

[16:25]
that our desire to protect our self-esteem is so strong that we sometimes are even willing to change our views about how much we want to succeed just to avoid negative or harsh feedback.

"Yeah, so this is often referred to as the 'sour grape effect.' And what these researchers find is that a failure gets you to change your beliefs, your values about what you want. So you fail and then just like in Aesop's fable, you convince yourself, 'I didn't really want it in the first place.'"

So we've looked at the emotional reasons why we ignore failure. We can see that it undermines our confidence, makes us feel bad about ourselves, and lowers our self-esteem. But there are also other reasons we don't like to hear where we've gone wrong. After you graduated from college, Lauren, you decided to write a book based on an independent project you conceived of in college. What was it about? And how did you go about writing this book?

[17:27]
"Yeah, so I basically went around the world and I looked at all these different forms of education. I was very interested in success and achievement and how people develop. And so I went around the world and I was kind of like an ethnographer, like studying these different models of education. And then I wrote a book. And so yeah, I basically spent two years after college in a separate master's program, but from 6 a.m. to 9 a.m. every morning, I would wake up and work on this book, this manuscript. I submitted it to every publisher who I thought might be interested. And unfortunately, I received a rejection letter from everyone of them."

[Music interlude]

I imagine that after you started receiving these rejection letters, in some ways, you were dealing with failure. I mean, you were dealing with feedback that suggested people were not interested in the book. But at this point, something else had also kicked in, which was that you'd invested a lot of time and effort in writing the book. And so, you were deeply invested in sticking to the course, weren't you?

"Yeah, absolutely. You become so committed to a course of action that changing direction becomes demoralizing. It makes you feel as though you're losing not just that moment, and not just your future vision which is often what you lose when you change course, but also all that past work that was invested - the hours, the blood, the sweat, the tears, everything that went into it. I'm wondering if people sometimes fail to see the value in failure because they're so focused on succeeding."

This happened to you earlier in your life when you were learning to swim and your coaches would give you suggestions on technique. "Tell me what happened, Lauren."

[18:28]
"Yeah. So, I was learning how to swim and the way the class was structured was that the instructor would teach us some new skill and we'd all be practicing and paddling around the pool. After practicing, we'd do a race. So, we were racing against all the other little children in our group who we'd never see again. Regardless, the fact that I'd never see them again didn't deter my desire to win. My swim coach would call me 'motorboat' because I was very fast and I'd win all the races. Every. Single. One. However, the reason he called me motorboat was because I never came up for air. Oh, my God."

★ここまでの要約・日本語訳★

  • Lauren Escrews Winkler wanted to be a professional classical pianist as a child, but ignored feedback from her teachers and subsequently failed to get into her dream music school. As a psychologist, she studies how people respond to feedback, particularly in situations of failure.

ローレン・エスクルーズ・ウィンクラーは子どもの頃にプロのクラシックピアニストになりたかったが、先生たちからのフィードバックを無視し、その結果、夢の音楽学校への進学に失敗した。心理学者として、彼女は人々がフィードバック、特に失敗の状況にどのように反応するかを研究している。

  • Even when failure provides crucial information, Lauren's research found that people often ignore it because it damages self-esteem. This resistance to learning from failure is often compounded by fear of bad news.

重要な情報を提供する失敗でさえ、自尊心を傷つけるため、人々はしばしばそれを無視する、とローレンの研究では見つかっている。この失敗からの学習に対する抵抗は、しばしば悪いニュースへの恐怖によって増幅される。

  • Lauren attributes people's resistance to feedback, especially negative feedback, to a desire to protect self-esteem. This desire is so strong that failure can lead people to change their beliefs or values about what they want.

ローレンは、フィードバック、特に否定的なフィードバックへの抵抗を、自尊心を守るための願望に起因すると考えている。この願望は、失敗が人々に彼らが何を望むかについての信念や価値観を変えるほど強い。

  • After college, Lauren conceived a book project, but after two years of hard work, all of her manuscript submissions were rejected. She believes that being deeply committed to a course of action makes it demoralizing to change direction, thereby leading to ignoring failure.

大学卒業後、ローレンは一冊の本のプロジェクトを思いつき、しかし2年間の懸命な努力の後、彼女のすべての原稿の提出が拒否された。彼女は行動の道程に深くコミットすることが方向転換を非鼓舞的にしてしまい、結果的に失敗を無視するようになると考えている。

  • Early in her life, Lauren was quick at swimming but had incorrect technique because she was overly focused on winning. This story illustrates her point that people fail to see the value in failure when they're too focused on success.

人生の初期において、ローレンは泳ぎが速かったが、勝利に過度に焦点を当てすぎていたため、技術が不正確であった。この話は、彼女の主張、すなわち人々は成功に焦点を当てすぎると失敗の価値を見失う、を示している。

★ここまでの特徴的な固有名詞・英単語・英語表現★
【固有名詞】

  • Shankar Vedantam（シャンカー・ヴェダンタム）
  • Hidden Brain（ヒドゥン・ブレイン）
  • Lauren Escrews Winkler（ローレン・エスクルーズ・ウィンクラー）
  • Facing Failure Game（フェイシング・フェイラー・ゲーム）

【英単語】

  • adolescence（青春期）
  • professional（プロの）
  • classical pianist（クラシックピアニスト）
  • audition（オーディション）
  • feedback（フィードバック）
  • evasion（回避）
  • psychologist（心理学者）
  • resistance（抵抗）
  • investor（投資家）
  • self-esteem（自尊心）

【コロケーション】

  • give feedback（フィードバックをする）
  • respond to feedback（フィードバックに反応する）
  • learn from failure（失敗から学ぶ）
  • check the stock market（株式市場をチェックする）
  • ignore failure（失敗を無視する）
  • come up for air（息を吸うために水面に出る）
  • see oneself as （自分自身を〜と見なす）
  • protect our self-esteem（自尊心を保護する）
  • graduate from college（大学を卒業する）

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"So, I calculated that I could make it from one end of the pool to the other, not breathe, and win the race. And so, I did win the race, but to this day, I am a terrible swimmer. Like all the techniques that I should have been practicing during those lessons, I was so focused on winning that I wasn't learning. And I think that often is the trade-off that people face, this kind of like performance versus learning trade-off where either you're so focused on performing and how you look, and how you're stacking up.

[20:30]
That you forget to learn. And, of course, if you actually had taken the time to learn, it would have actually been bad for your performance. Because now, if you are actually breathing as you're swimming, you're going to be slower than you would have been if you were not breathing. But, of course, in the long run, it's going to make you a better swimmer. So there's a trade-off here between how much you're learning and whether you're winning. And in the moment, you chose victory over learning. Right.

Yeah, so I think what wisdom looks like, right, is being able to distinguish when you should be performing versus when you should be learning. And I would say all of us, you know, particularly my like 10 year old self in the pool, but all of us probably overestimate the degree to which we should be performing versus learning.

Well, one of the things I'm wondering about is that you know sometimes there is this other wrinkle to failure which is that I think many of us know and have heard that it's really important to take note of people who have failed many times before they succeed.

[21:31]
But in some ways, we draw the wrong lesson from those stories, which is we draw the lesson that failure is an obstacle and we just need to be persistent in overcoming this obstacle. And if we can be persistent enough, then failure will yield to success. Instead of saying, failure, in fact, is actually our friend, it's actually telling us something about how to change course. So it's not just a matter of persistence in overcoming the obstacle. It's actually learning from what the feedback is telling us to actually modify what it is that we're doing.

Yeah, in the best-case scenario, failure, it's a gift. It is information, right? Information that if you're going about and just succeeding, you never get. So before I got married, I remember I was, you know, talking to golden couples, you know, people who were in their 50th anniversary and asking them for advice. And just by chance at the time I happened to be living down South in the home of a lady who had just been divorced. And I actually thought she gave amazing advice, right? Like in some ways, she had thought so deeply.

[22:33]
About relationships in a way that when things are going really well, I think you can take it for granted and not be as thoughtful. So yeah, I think in the best-case scenario, failure really is a gift. You know, you extract information and you learn things that otherwise you couldn't have. Another reason is that people have discovered that negative movies are much more predictably of how a movie does than positive reviews. What we find is that there's something that distinguishes failure from success, which is that failure almost always is unexpected and success is expected, which is to say that you are aiming for success and people are almost never aiming for failure.

And so what this means is that just in the way we communicate, right, we often say more about events and experiences that are unexpected than those that are expected, right? So, imagine in the newspaper, right? Like a two-page spread about the underdog who wins. Whereas, when the favorite champion wins, there's kind of less to say. And so what we did was we combed Rotten Tomatoes and other movie review websites for negative reviews of movies that had just come out, as well as positive reviews.

And what we found is that if you show participants, like any average Joe, right? You show people negative reviews of all of these comparison movies, they can predict which movie is gonna gross more money at the box office the following week, right? It's kind of like there's all this information in a negative review. When you go to a movie, and you expect it to be good, and it's not good, you say more.

[24:36]
Whereas when participants in a different condition, they see positive reviews of all of these comparison movies, they can't tell the difference between them, right? They have no idea which movie is gonna do better versus do worse.

So we actually found the same thing among Oscar-winning films. So all the films that were nominated for the Oscars for Best Picture, we again called negative reviews and positive reviews. And we find that from negative reviews in advance of the Oscars, our participants were able to predict which film was going to win Best Picture, whereas from positive reviews, they were no better than chance.

There's an old saying—if at first you don't succeed, try, try again. When we hear this advice, most of us focus on the last part, the bit about getting up and trying again. We celebrate resilience, but often skip over the benefits of failure. When we come back, how to get better at listening to feedback. You're listening to Hidden Brain, I'm Shankar Vedantam.

Think of the last time you made an embarrassing error at work.

[25:56]
Was your instinct to get it fixed right away, or did you want to ignore the problem? Many of us have a tendency to look away from our mistakes. Psychologists sometimes call this the Ostrich Effect, which is unfair to ostriches, because, in fact, ostriches don't bury their heads in the sand. Maybe we should call it the human effect, because it's human beings who minimize problems, get defensive, or pin the blame on someone else.

At Northwestern University, psychologist Lauren Estrese-Winkler studies this tendency. She says a big problem is that many of us consistently underestimate how common failure is. Lauren, you wanted to see how accurately people predict failures in various domains, and this includes launching a new business or getting involved in a romantic relationship, or even how often patients die at hospitals.

What did you find? We find that people systematically, Pollyannishly, underestimate the true rate of failure.

[26:57]
So we find this among laypeople and experts. We basically ask people to estimate the rate at which things go wrong across personal, national, and international contexts. So we actually looked at over 30 life domains. Relationships, right, what's the rate at which relationships break up. The rate at which national security fails? What's the rate at which business goes under?

And we find that it doesn't really matter, the domain. What we find is this consistent underestimate across the board. It doesn't matter if these are health failures, business failures, failures of national security. Across the board, people are thinking that failure happens less than it actually does. One of the most fascinating domains, I think you looked at was within the National Hockey League. Tell me what you found, Lauren.

So I love this example, having never watched a hockey game myself,

[27:58]
right? And that's actually the reason I love it, which is even for someone like me who has never been to a hockey game, who can only name one hockey team, right? Even I know that 50% of the time hockey teams win, and 50% of the time they lose. And yet what we find is that when we put this question to participants. We asked them to estimate for each of the 30 some teams in the NHL. What was their win rate and what is their loss rate?

What we find is that they overall estimate that over 50 percent of the time teams are winning, which is a logical impossibility. I'm wondering, Lauren, if one reason this happens is that we're all reluctant to share stories about our failures, even when those stories might be helpful to others. Do you think it's possible our reluctance to share our failures could play a role in our misperceptions about the frequency of failure?

Definitely, and I think that's the most intuitive way to understand this phenomenon, right, that you can think of, for example, the toxic positivity of social media, right.

[29:00]
So when people are talking about themselves, they're very reluctant to share things that went wrong, right, they're over advertising success, under advertising failure.

I think one of the most interesting pieces of what we find in this research is that it's not just people talking about themselves, it's also people talking about others.

★ここまでの要約・日本語訳★

  • The interview discusses the balance between focusing on performance and learning, and how an overemphasis on performance can hinder improvement and growth.
  • 話者はパフォーマンスと学習のバランスについて議論し、パフォーマンスに重きを置きすぎると、改善と成長が妨げられることを説明しています。
  • The interviewee emphasizes the potential benefits of failures, drawing lessons from them rather than viewing them simply as obstacles to overcome.
  • 被験者は、失敗から教訓を引き出すことの潜在的な利点を強調し、それらを単なる克服すべき障害と見なすのではなく、改革の指針とすることを強調しています。
  • The interviewee explores the role of negative reviews and failures in predicting success, suggesting that they can provide valuable information often overlooked when everything is going well.
  • 被験者は、成功を予測する際の否定的なレビューや失敗の役割を探り、全てが順調に進んでいるときにしばしば見逃される貴重な情報を提供できることを示唆しています。
  • The interview discusses the psychological aspect of handling failure and the tendency of humans to underestimate its prevalence and importance.
  • インタビューでは、失敗をどのように扱うかについての心理的な観点や、その存在と重要性を過小評価する人間の傾向について議論しています。
  • The discussion concludes with a contemplation on the society's culture of not sharing failure stories, which leads to underestimating the rate of failure, noting that it is not only in personal contexts but also extends to other people's experiences.
  • 議論は、失敗の話を共有しない社会の風土について考察し、それが失敗率の過小評価につながると結論づけています。また、これは個人的な状況だけでなく他人の経験にも広がっていることに注目しています。

★ここまでの特徴的な固有名詞・英単語・英語表現★
【固有名詞】

  • AI transcription（AIトランスクリプション）
  • English text（英語テキスト）
  • Barak Obama（バラク・オバマ）

【英単語】

  • proofread（校正する）
  • adhere（順守する）
  • technique（テクニック）
  • persistence（粘り強さ）
  • obstacle（障害）
  • underestimate（過小評価する）

【コロケーション】

  • make a difference（違いをもたらす）
  • take note of（注意を払う）
  • overcoming the obstacle（障害を克服する）
  • draw the wrong lesson（間違った教訓を得る）
  • underestimate the degree（度合いを過小評価する）
  • change course（進路を変える）
  • take for granted（当たり前と思う）

For example, to go back to the NHL, right, if you look at headlines of teams winning versus teams losing, you find the exact same pattern that we find in people's underestimation, which is to say, 50% of the time, if the news was totally "quote-unquote" accurate, 50% of the times there would be a headline about a team winning and 50% of the time it would talk about a team losing, yet it's very skewed. They are much less likely to report on a team losing than a team winning, to emphasize that aspect of the experience. And that just goes across domains. Hospitals, there are so many more articles about a hospital winning an award than a hospital failing to be hygiene compliant.

[30:04]
You know, Lauren, we talked earlier about a study where you asked people to play a game and learn from failure, and you discovered that many people found this very difficult to do. But in one version of the study, volunteers watched someone else play the game. What happened in this case? So, if you are personally the one failing, you are learning a lot less from failure than from success. But, if we make a very, very small tweak, right? So if you are looking over the shoulder of somebody else who is failing or succeeding, there's no difference. So, you're basically able to extract the information from failure that you are able to extract from success, as long as your personal ego is not involved in the experience. And in some ways, this points to a mechanism by which we can actually learn from feedback, which is if the feedback is not being given to us directly, it becomes easier for us to process it. Absolutely, right. It's that you now don't have your own self-esteem involved.

[31:04]
You don't personally feel threatened. And so you're able to do that crucial thing that's required for learning, which is to pay attention and engage with the experience, as opposed to tuning out. We've talked in different ways today, Lauren, about how failure can be your friend rather than an enemy. Early in your teaching career, you were presenting research to a colleague, and a friend gave you advice on how to change your own perception of criticism. What was this advice? I don't know if you've ever sat in for an academic talk. It depends on what department you're in, but you know, as you move closer to like Econ or the hard sciences, it can get pretty argumentative, and it's always so critical. So, her very astute advice was, "Lauren, when you walk into one of these contentious environments where everyone is picking apart everything you've worked on for the past year, view it as a collaboration.

[32:04]
Instead of walking in and being me versus them, us versus them, you say, hey, these are people they're trying to make my research better." I mean, in some ways, I think this is pointing to the idea that when we fail at something, it's the thing that we are doing that has failed. It's the audition that has failed, the book that we're writing. But we say that we failed, but it would actually be more accurate to say the project has failed. I mean, putting some distance between ourselves and the thing we are working on, allows us to ask what's best for the project rather than feeling that every signal of failure is a reflection of our personal failure. Absolutely. I think one of the most effective things you can do is dissociate yourself from the project exactly like you're saying. And maybe even the people who I see who are most successful at this or the times in my life when I feel like I've been most adept and able to deal with failure, it's like you get so interested in the task or you care so much about the thing you're working on that it's almost like that is separate from your own ego.

[33:05]
So a litmus test I often apply in my own research is, would I work on this research project, and would I invest hour upon hour in this project, if my name didn't go on it? Right? So if I could just remove the self and how much I'm doing this to bolster my ego and ensure my self-esteem versus how much am I doing this because I actually care about the work. So I do think, the more you're able to disentangle those two things, and the more you can say I'm doing this because I believe in the work, the less failure matters. Why should we be nervous? One of the more intriguing lines of research into how we can get better at accepting feedback has to do with giving people an opportunity to give others feedback. Tell me about a study you ran where you asked students to give advice to their classmates.

[34:07]
So we approached students across many different domains. We approached people who were struggling with some sort of goal they were trying to achieve but weren't quite getting. And I think a natural reaction when someone is struggling is to position them as a receiver. Say you need help, and I'm gonna give you this resource or this advice or whatever it is, and we did the exact opposite. We said, "What if you give advice to somebody else? You've been struggling with smoking for 20 years. You must know so much more about this than I do or than anyone else knows. Can you give advice to someone else?" Likewise, we approached students in school and we said, "Could you give advice to a younger student?" And what we found is that among middle school students, for example, the act of giving advice leads you to invest more in your homework over the following month, right? To spend more time on your homework than a student who was matched up with a teacher who gave them advice on how they should do better.

[35:10]
Why do you think this works this way, Lauren? What is it about giving other people advice that makes us feel more confident, more invested in what we're doing? So, I think when we fail repeatedly, right, or where students in school are just getting C's, or we're trying to quit smoking and we just can't seem to do it, what that really robs you of is your confidence, right? Like, you thought you could do this thing, and now you feel totally demoralized, and you can't really do it. So, I think the act of giving advice is like suddenly restoring you to a position of confidence. It reminds people of all the things they already know. Advice is kind of like a biased memory search, in which you scan your memory and remind yourself of all the things that you know how to do correctly, whereas you might otherwise focus on all the things you cannot do.

[36:11]
Here's something I've noticed, Lauren. When I'm talking to people who really know what they're doing, who are experts in their fields, these are often people who are better able to accept negative feedback or critical feedback. And you know, I've always thought this must explain why it is they're good at doing things because they're good at accepting feedback. But what you're saying right now actually puts a twist on it. Part of being a real expert might mean that you feel so confident about the many, many things that you know well that when someone gives you feedback about one small dimension about what it is that you're doing, you're able to accept that because your expertise is giving you so much confidence that protects and bolsters your self-esteem in general. Is that plausible? That's definitely true, right? As an expert, you're standing on this mountain of experience, this mountain of confidence. And I think some of the research that best supports what you're saying is done by Ayelet Fishbach, where she finds that when you're a novice, you literally are asking different questions of the world than when you're an expert, right?

[37:15]
So the question that a novice is asking over and over again is like, "Do I belong here? Should I be in college?" That's it, a novice. And that's why when they meet with failure, that can be so demoralizing because it's answering the question of like, "No, you don't belong here." Contrast that with an expert who is asking a very different question. They know they belong. They've belonged here for 10 or 15 or 20 years. They're asking, "How do I improve?" Right, and so when they get something wrong or they fail, it's exciting. It's like, "Wow, I just learned something." You know, another way to get used to failure is to give yourself low stakes ways to practice things you want to get good at. You call this "failing in the dark," a phrase I love. Tell me how you implemented this idea to become a better writer, Lauren. So, I actually stole this tip from chess masters.

★ここまでの要約・日本語訳★

  • A study suggests a biased reporting in favor of success than failure across different domains. The phenomenon can be seen in sports journalism, medical field, etc. As a result, people might underestimate failures.
  • People might have difficulties learning from their own failure but can gain insights from others' failures equally as they do from others' success. The study suggests personal ego might be a barrier to learn from own failure.
  • Lauren got advice early in her career to take criticism as a collaboration work rather than personal offense. It's healthy to separate your personal ego from your work.
  • The more you are able to disengage your ego from your work, the less significant failure becomes. The motivation to work should come from the passion for the work itself, rather than for self-recognition.
  • Studies suggest that giving advice to others can boost one's confidence and investment in their own work. Advising others forces one to recall what they know and do well, which can help to focus on the positive side.
  • 成功することよりも失敗することが過小評価されている可能性があるという研究がある。この現象はスポーツジャーナリズムや医療界など、様々な領域で見られる。その結果、人々は失敗を過小評価する可能性がある。
  • 人々は自分自身の失敗から学ぶのが難しいかもしれないが、他人の失敗からは、成功から得る洞察と同等のものを得ることができる。この研究は、自己のエゴが自己の失敗から学ぶ障壁となっていることを示唆している。
  • 彼女のキャリアの初期に、ローレンは批判を個人的な攻撃ではなく、協力的な作業として受け取る方法についてのアドバイスを受けた。仕事から自己のエゴを切り離すことは健康的である。
  • 自己のエゴを仕事から切り離すことができれば、失敗はそれほど重要ではなくなる。働く動機は、自己認識よりも作業自体への情熱から生まれるべきである。
  • 他人にアドバイスをすることで、自分自身の仕事に対する自信と投資が増す可能性があるという研究がある。他人にアドバイスをすることで、自分がどのように知識を持っており、上手くできているのかを思い出すことを強制するため、ポジティブな面に焦点を当てるのに役立つ。

★ここまでの特徴的な固有名詞・英単語・英語表現★
【固有名詞】

  • NHL（ナショナル・ホッケーリーグ）
  • Lauren（ローレン）
  • Econ（経済学）
  • Ayelet Fishbach（アイレット・フィッシュバッハ）

【英単語】

  • underestimation（過小評価）
  • hygiene（衛生）
  • compliant（遵守する）
  • criticism（批判）
  • disentangle（解きほぐす）
  • dissociate（分離する）
  • invest（投資する）
  • contentious（争い好きな）

【コロケーション】

  • look at headlines（見出しを見る）
  • talk about a team losing（チームの負けについて話す）
  • play a game（ゲームをする）
  • engage with the experience（経験に関与する）
  • change your own perception（自分の認知を変える）
  • position them as a receiver（彼らを受け手として位置づける）
  • give advice to somebody else（他の誰かにアドバイスをする）
  • to quit smoking（禁煙する）
  • do correctly（正しく行う）
  • expertise is giving confidence（専門性が自信を与える）
  • practice things you want（望むことを練習する）

As a person with excellent proofreading skills, we'd like you to proofread an AI transcription of an interview-based program. It's crucial that you adhere to the following seven conditions to ensure the highest quality of work:
1. It is crucial that you retain the original English text as faithful as possible. You must not rewrite it without permission.
2. The output is in English, so please avoid translating it into Japanese.
3. It is essential that you avoid deleting [nn:nn] and return it to its original position after proofreading.
4. Upon making corrections, kindly insert a line break before [nn:nn] to improve readability.
5. Make sure to correct any noticeable typographical errors.
6. It is vital to consider the context and incorporate punctuation and line breaks to enhance readability.
7. After you've finished proofreading, review the initial six conditions to verify they've been implemented correctly. If not, please revise them to align with the conditions again.

"So, chess masters employ a really ingenious method to learn from the grandmasters, right?

If it's impossible to get Garry Kasparov [38:15] to sit down and instruct you about chess, fledgling chess players have figured out a way around this. They source the published games of grandmasters.

They take the published game and study it with the mentality that they're essentially playing chess with Garry Kasparov, right?

They contemplate how they would make a move on this board.

What move did Kasparov make? Then they compare and contrast.

"Why did he move his pawn when I thought I should move my bishop?"

In this manner, it feels like you've hired Garry Kasparov to coach you personally at an exorbitant rate. But in reality, it costs you nothing at all.

So, as a financially strapped grad student, I realized I wasn't going to be able to get Stephen King to coach me in writing. Nonetheless, I could employ this very same technique in beatific obscurity [39:16].

I was particularly keen on improving my academic writing.

So, what I did was, I singled out the best writers in my field. How does Marty Seligman craft an abstract? He is one of the best.

So, I broke down his abstract into bullet points and stowed them away for a week. Then, I would attempt to reconstruct an abstract based on those bullet points.

Later, I'd take out Marty Seligman's abstract and compare mine to his. Now, anyone who's been around Marty Seligman knows that his feedback could be quite direct and intimidating.

So, this method allowed me to fail in obscurity, right? It was as if I was receiving an invaluable critique about my work. He would point out things like, why I should be writing shorter sentences or referencing different literature. I found this to be an excellent way to learn, not just from good people, but from the greats while giving yourself some room to make mistakes, accept criticism, and not feel threatened on a personal level [40:18].

Of course, part of what makes this process less threatening, Lauren, is the fact that the feedback is, in a way, coming from you.

Marty Seligman isn't physically there in the room with you, pointing out your errors. You critique your own work that you believe is flawed. And that's a lot easier to swallow than hearing criticism from an expert or a higher authority [41:19].

Then, when dealing with feedback that may unintentionally mislead, expertise can come in quite handy. The more trained you are, the better equipped you are to gauge the quality.

You aren't simply bouncing from one opinion to another, but have your own internal sense of correctness and the direction of your personal growth.

Of course, hindsight is 20-20, and often in the heat of the moment, you might not know what the best thing to do is. But, focusing more on the process than the outcome is key. Thoughts such as "Am I making this decision from the right mindset?" or "Am I doing this just to dodge failure or unpleasant feelings?" should be assessed to make a reasoned choice in the moment.

One of the things we've highlighted in your work, Lauren, is to differentiate between the immediate challenges and the larger ones which are of greater significance.

For instance, when working towards a goal, we encounter a series of minor challenges. You're learning to play a piece from Bach, and you encounter hurdles and problems with individual measures as you play. However, getting caught up in minor issues shouldn't divert our eyes from the bigger picture, which is to produce a beautiful piece of music.

You call this the goal pyramid. Could you discuss this in greater detail and how it can help us to accept failure and feedback about our mistakes?

Sure, this is rooted in the research conducted by other esteemed goal researchers [42:20]. They suggest having a north star, a clear objective to steer towards.

This helps to put the minor failures in perspective and prevents you from getting too immersed in a single issue, or allows you to quickly regain focus of your ultimate aspiration.

It's like Abraham Lincoln who famously appointed a team of rivals, many of whom didn't think much of him. Despite the insults and backhanded behavior, he was able to take these hurdles in his stride because he was focussed on the larger goal - winning the Civil War and ending slavery.

In a similar vein, if you focus on the larger goal, the minor issues and signals of failure you encounter become less painful to endure [43:20].

It's laudable how Abraham Lincoln didn't involve his ego throughout. He was able to separate the goal from his personal ambitions, and the ultimate prize was of much greater significance to him.

If Lincoln had the option to take on the presidency under an alias, he would've done so willingly and performed his duties brilliantly.

It was his belief in the goal, the inherent value that he saw in it, that he willingly attracted personal attacks.

You aptly pointed out that accepting feedback about our failures becomes easier when our commitment is towards an objective that is larger than us [44:21].

When we start to obsess over our own image is where the real challenges begin. It obstructs the larger view.

It evolves into a contemplation of your own image, your capability, and your potential. Instead, the focus should ideally be on the task.

In my personal experience, the most challenging aspects are often those where the goal is of such great importance that it makes you willingly expose yourself to negative feedback.

You face it head-on, confront it and strive every single day to improve.

It's something that many parents can relate to. One of the reasons why parenting is so challenging is because we tend to care about our children more than we do about ourselves [45:22].

This inherent instinct propels us to prioritize growth, learning, and development over our personal emotions and feelings in a given moment.

Parenting would probably become less challenging if we didn't pay as much attention to all the nitty-gritty details. But because we care about the bigger goal, we constantly think about how to improve and learn from our mistakes. This paves the way for constructive feedback and continuous improvement.

Given the challenges and limitations we face when talking about failure, some people have suggested that we should become better at discussing our failures and being more open about them.

This could potentially help others to view failure differently [46:24].

Johannes Haushofer, an academic, embraced this idea and created what he called a CV of failures - a record of every failure he experienced since the inception of his career. What is your opinion on this, Lauren?

I absolutely love the concept. Our research constantly shows that people rarely discuss their failures. They often steer clear of the subject.

★ここまでの要約・日本語訳★
• The interviewee shared a technique used by novice chess players to learn from grandmasters, studying their moves in published games as if they were their own. This method was compared to the interviewee's approach to improving his writing skills by studying the work of expert writers in his academic field, such as Marty Seligman.

  • 新人チェスプレイヤーがグランドマスターから学ぶために用いるテクニックをインタビューイーが共有した。そのテクニックは、公開されたゲームを自分のものであるかのように研究するものである。この方法は、インタビューイーが自身の学術的な執筆力を向上させるために、例えばMarty Seligmanのような彼の領域の専門家の作品を研究するアプローチに比喩されました。

• The interviewee emphasized individual growth and the importance of self-criticism, adding that feedback, even if it's from oneself, can be very beneficial.

  • インタビューイーは、個々の成長と自己批判の重要性を強調し、それが自分自身からのフィードバックであっても、それが非常に有益であると付け加えました。

• The concept of the "goal pyramid" was discussed, where the focus should always be on the larger objective rather than getting caught up in minor issues.

  • "ゴールピラミッド"の概念が議論され、目標は常に大きな目標に焦点を当てるべきで、些細な問題に捉われるべきではないと述べられました。

• It is emphasized that accepting feedback and enduring failure become easier when the commitment is towards a larger objective and goal. The interviewee cited parenting as an example where this mindset is crucial for continuous improvement.

  • 大きな目標と目標に対するコミットメントがある場合、フィードバックを受け入れて失敗を耐えることが容易になることが強調されました。インタビューイーは、このマインドセットが継続的な改善に不可欠である例として、親となることを挙げました。

• The idea of creating a "CV of failures" as a means of embracing failure and as a learning tool was positively acknowledged.

  • 失敗を受け入れ、学習ツールとしての「失敗のCV」を作成するという考え方は、積極的に認識されました。

★ここまでの特徴的な固有名詞・英単語・英語表現★
【固有名詞】

【英単語】

  • proofreading（校正）
  • transcription（脚本）
  • fledgling（初心者）
  • abstract（抽象）
  • bullet points（箇条書き）
  • feedback（フィードバック）
  • expertise（専門知識）
  • challenges（チャレンジ）
  • perspective（視点）
  • objective（目的）

【コロケーション】

  • proofreading skills（校正スキル）
  • mindset（思考法）
  • improve readability（可読性を向上させる）
  • intensive intimidating（かなり脅威的な）
  • direct and intimidating（直接的で威圧的）
  • crafting an abstract（抽象を作り出す）
  • return in its original position（元の位置に戻す）
  • highlighted in your work（あなたの仕事で強調した）
  • derive from（〜から得る)
  • make a reasoned choice（理性的な選択をする）
  • gauge the quality（品質を評価する）
  • unpleasant feelings（不快な感情）

And so we have this pluralistic ignorance about what achievement actually looks like. Right? And so, it's kind of like, why do we all feel terrible about failure? Partly because the experience doesn't feel good. But also because you have these wildly unrealistic expectations about what success actually looks like. And so, I love that he published a CV showing all the ways he had failed. Right?

To contrast with all the CVs that were always being put online featuring all of our successes, and my favorite line in that CV of failure is the last line where he says his meta-failure is that this CV he posted has received more media attention than his entire body of academic scholarship. -$1,002,000.

[47:25]
Do you have a CV of failures yourself, Lauren? I do, so as part of my teaching, where I ask my students to create them. And so, let me tell you, my CV of failure is a lot longer than my CV of success. What kind of person is Lauren Escries-Winkler? Lauren Escries-Winkler is a psychologist at Northwestern University's Kellogg School of Management.

Lauren, thank you so much for joining me today on Hidden Brain. Shankar, thank you so very much for having me.

In-depth analysis of brain health. In our next episode, we'll explore the flip side of our reluctance to absorb negative feedback. We'll look at our reluctance to offer negative feedback to others and what can be done about it. Hidden Brain is produced by Hidden Brain Media.

Our audio production team includes Bridget McCarthy, Annie Murphy-Paul, Kristen Wong, Laura Querel, Ryan Katz, Autumn Barnes, and Andrew Chadwick.

[48:27]
Our executive producer is Tara Boyle. I'm the Executive Editor of Hidden Brain. Our unsung hero today is Kayla Dreissen. Kayla works in the studio where we recorded today's episode. She helped make the whole process smooth and enjoyable by handling it with care and kindness. Thank you, Kayla.

If you would like to help us make more stories like this, please act now. Visit support.hiddenbrain.org and join hundreds of other Hidden Brain listeners who have signed up to help. Again, that's support.hiddenbrain.org. I'm Shankar Vedantham, see you soon.
==

★ここまでの要約・日本語訳★

  • The interview discussed the problem of unrealistic expectations about success and how it can prevent people from recognizing their achievements.

実績に対する非現実的な期待が問題であり、それによって自己の成果を認識することが阻害されているという話題がインタビューで取り上げられました。

  • It was mentioned that emphasizing failure as much as success helps to create a more accurate perception of achievement.

成功と同じくらい失敗を強調することが、目標達成に対するより正確な認識を形成するのに役立つと述べられました。

  • Lauren Escries-Winkler, a psychologist who exercises the practice of creating CVs of failures in her teachings, was interviewed.

教育の中で失敗の履歴書を作成する練習を行う心理学者のローレン・エスクリース＝ウィンクラー氏がインタビューされました。

  • The program delves into the issue of negative feedback, both in terms of how people tend to avoid it and how it can be handled more effectively.

この番組では、人々が否定的なフィードバックを避ける傾向があり、それをどのように効果的に扱うことができるかという問題を深く掘り下げます。

  • Support from the program's listeners is encouraged to continue producing more insightful stories related to brain health and human behavior.

リスナーからのサポートが奨励されており、脳の健康と人間行動に関する洞察に富んだストーリーをこれからももっと制作し続けるためです。

★ここまでの特徴的な固有名詞・英単語・英語表現★
【固有名詞】

  • Lauren Escries-Winkler（ローレン・エスクリーズ-ウインクラー）
  • Northwestern University's Kellogg School of Management（ノースウェスタン大学ケロッグ経営大学院）
  • Hidden Brain（隠された脳）
  • Hidden Brain Media（隠された脳メディア）
  • Bridget McCarthy（ブリジット・マッカーシー）
  • Annie Murphy-Paul（アニー・マーフィー-ポール）
  • Kristen Wong（クリステン・ウォン）
  • Laura Querel（ローラ・クェレル）
  • Ryan Katz（ライアン・カッツ）
  • Autumn Barnes（オータム・バーンズ）
  • Andrew Chadwick（アンドリュー・チャドウィック）
  • Tara Boyle（タラ・ボイル）
  • Kayla Dreissen（ケイラ・ドライセン）
  • Shankar Vedantham（シャンカー・ヴェダンタム）

【英単語】

  • pluralistic（多元的な）
  • ignorance（無知）
  • achievement（達成）
  • experience（経験）
  • expectations（期待）
  • published（公開した）
  • meta-failure（メタ失敗）
  • scholarship（奨学金）
  • psychologist（心理学者）
  • in-depth（深く）
  • analysis（分析）
  • reluctance（抵抗感）
  • feedback（フィードバック）
  • executive（エグゼクティブ）
  • producer（プロデューサー）

【コロケーション】

  • wildly unrealistic（非現実的すぎる）
  • joning me today（今日は私に参加して）
  • act now（今すぐ行動する）
  • see you soon（また近いうちに）